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<title>Language transfer</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Language transfer</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Negative transfer" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Negative_transfer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Negative transfer (disambiguation)">Negative transfer (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

<div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li>

<li><a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_linguistics" title="Mathematical linguistics">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li>

<li><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li>

<li><a href="Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p><b>Language transfer</b> is the application of linguistic features from one language to another by a bilingual or multilingual speaker. Language transfer may occur across both languages in the acquisition of a <a href="Simultaneous_bilingualism" title="Simultaneous bilingualism">simultaneous bilingual</a>. It may also occur from a mature speaker's <a href="First_language" title="First language">first language</a> (L1) to a <a href="Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> (L2) they are acquiring, or from an L2 back to the L1.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Language transfer (also known as <b>L1 interference</b>, <b>linguistic interference</b>, and <b><a href="Crosslinguistic_influence" title="Crosslinguistic influence">crosslinguistic influence</a></b>) is most commonly discussed in the context of <a href="English_language_learning_and_teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="English language learning and teaching">English language learning and teaching</a>, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when <a href="Translating" class="mw-redirect" title="Translating">translating</a> into a second language. Language transfer is also a common topic in bilingual <a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">child language acquisition</a> as it occurs frequently in bilingual children especially when one language is dominant.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_language_transfer">Types of language transfer</h2></div>

<p>When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called <i>positive transfer</i>: here, the "correct" meaning is in line with most native speakers' notions of acceptability.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the use of <a href="Cognates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognates">cognates</a>. However, language interference is most often discussed as a source of <a href="Error_(linguistics)" title="Error (linguistics)">errors</a> known as <i>negative transfer</i>, which can occur when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_transfer">Negative transfer</h3></div>

<p>Within the theory of <a href="Contrastive_analysis" title="Contrastive analysis">contrastive analysis</a>, the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a>, a preposition is used before a day of the week: "I'm going to the beach <i>on</i> Friday." In <a href="Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, instead of a preposition the definite article is used: "Voy a la playa el viernes." Novice Spanish students who are native English-speakers may produce a transfer error and use a preposition when it is not necessary because of their reliance on English. According to Whitley, it is natural for students to make such errors based on how the English words are used.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another typical example of negative transfer concerns <a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a> students trying to learn English, despite being part of the same <a href="Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic language family</a>. Since the German noun "Information" can also be used in the plural – "Informationen" – German students will almost invariably use "informations" in English, too, which would break the rules of <a href="Uncountable_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncountable noun">uncountable nouns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

From a more general standpoint, Brown mentions "all new learning involves transfer based on previous learning".<sup id="cite_ref-Bransford_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bransford-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That could also explain why initial learning of L1 will impact L2 acquisition.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_transfer">Positive transfer</h3></div>

<p>The results of positive transfer go largely unnoticed and so are less often discussed. Nonetheless, such results can have an observable effect. Generally speaking, the more similar the two languages are and the more the learner is aware of the relation between them, the more positive transfer will occur. For example, an <a href="English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">Anglophone</a> learner of <a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a> may correctly guess an item of German vocabulary from its English counterpart, but <a href="Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, <a href="Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>, <a href="Connotations" class="mw-redirect" title="Connotations">connotations</a>, <a href="Collocation" title="Collocation">collocation</a>, and other language features are more likely to differ. That is why such an approach has the disadvantage of making the learner more subject to the influence of "<a href="False_friend" title="False friend">false friends</a>", words that seem similar between languages but differ significantly in <a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">meaning</a>. This influence is especially common among learners who <a href="Folk_linguistics" title="Folk linguistics">misjudge the relation between languages</a> or mainly rely on <a href="Visual_learning" title="Visual learning">visual learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In addition to positive transfer potentially resulting in correct language production and negative transfer resulting in errors, there is some evidence that any transfer from the first language can result in a kind of technical, or analytical, advantage over native (monolingual) speakers of a language. For example, L2 speakers of English whose first language is <a href="Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> have been found to be more accurate with perception of <a href="Unreleased_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Unreleased stop">unreleased stops</a> in English than native English speakers who are functionally monolingual because of the different status of unreleased stops in Korean from English.<sup id="cite_ref-ChangMishler2012_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChangMishler2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That "native-language transfer benefit" appears to depend on an alignment of properties in the first and the second languages that favors the linguistic biases of the first language, rather than simply the perceived similarities between two languages.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conscious_and_unconscious_transfer">Conscious and unconscious transfer</h2></div>

<p>Language transfer may be <a href="Conscious" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscious">conscious</a> or <a href="Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconscious</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consciously, learners or unskilled translators may sometimes guess when producing speech or text in a second language because they have not learned or have forgotten its proper usage. Unconsciously, they may not realize that the structures and internal rules of the languages in question are different. Such users could also be aware of both the structures and internal rules, yet be insufficiently skilled to put them into practice, and consequently often fall back on their first language. The unconscious aspect to language transfer can be demonstrated in the case of the so-called "transfer-to-nowhere" principle put forward by Eric Kellerman, which addressed language based on its conceptual organization instead of its <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> features. Here, language determines how the speaker conceptualizes <a href="Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>, with the principle describing the process as an unconscious assumption that is subject to between-language variation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kellerman explained that it is difficult for learners to acquire the construal patterns of a new language because "learners may not look for the perspectives peculiar to the [target/L2] language; instead they may seek the linguistic tools which will permit them to maintain their L1 perspective."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The conscious transfer of language, on the other hand, can be illustrated in the principle developed by Roger Andersen called "transfer-to-somewhere," which holds that "a language structure will be susceptible to transfer only if it is compatible with natural acquisitional principles or is perceived to have similar counterpart (a somewhere to transfer to) in the recipient language."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is interpreted as a heuristic designed to make sense of the target language input by assuming a form of awareness on the part of the learner to map L1 onto the L2.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An analogy that can describe the differences between the Kellerman's and Anderson's principles is that the former is concerned with the conceptualization that fuels the drive towards discovering the means of linguistic expression whereas Andersen's focused on the acquisition of those means.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acceleration_and_deceleration">Acceleration and deceleration</h2></div>

<p>The theories of acceleration and deceleration are bilingual child language acquisition theories based on the known norms of monolingual acquisition. These theories come from comparisons of bilingual children's acquisition to that of their monolingual peers of similar backgrounds.

</p><p>Acceleration is a process similar to that of <a href="Bootstrapping_(linguistics)" title="Bootstrapping (linguistics)">bootstrapping</a>, where a child acquiring language uses knowledge and skills from one language to aid in, and speed up their acquisition of the other language.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Deceleration is a process in which a child experiences negative effects (more mistakes and slower language learning) on their language acquisition due to interference from their other language.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literacy_development">Literacy development</h2></div>

<p>Language transfer is often referred to as <i>cross-language transfer</i>, the ability to use skills acquired in one language and to use those skills to facilitate learning of a new language.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cross-language transfer has been researched and analyzed by many scholars over the years, but the focus on cross-language transfer in literacy research expanded in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a topic that has been gaining lots of interest from scholars due to the increasing number of bilingual and multilingual people, especially students, around the world. In the USA alone, English Language Learners (ELL) account for over 10% of the students enrolled in public schools.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The linguistic interdependence hypothesis claims that language transfer can occur from L1 (<a href="First_language" title="First language">first language</a>) to L2 (<a href="Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>), but there first must be a level of proficiency in L1 literacy skills for the skills to transfer over into L2.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, there must be some prior knowledge of literacy skills in L1 to assist with acquiring literacy skills in  L2. The acquisition of L2 literacy skills can be facilitated and gained with greater ease by having more time, access, and experience with L1 literary skills.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, through formal exposure and practice with literacy skills, L2 learners have been able to catch up with their monolingual peers.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, literacy skills acquired in L2 can also be used to assist with literacy skills in L1 because cross-language transfer is bidirectional.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Most studies have indicated that literacy cross-language transfer can occur regardless of the L1 and the L2 languages, but Chung et al. (2012<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) state that cross-language transfer is less likely to occur when the languages do not share similar orthography systems. For example, using literacy skills acquired in English may be accessed and used with more ease in Spanish because English and Spanish follow similar orthography (they use letters). Whereas, using literacy skills acquired in English to facilitate ease of learning Korean would be more difficult because those languages do not follow a similar orthography system (English uses the <a href="English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">English alphabet</a>, and Korean uses the <a href="Korean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean alphabet">Korean alphabet</a>).

</p><p>Cross-language transfer can also occur with deaf bilinguals who use sign language and read written words.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People may think that both American Sign Language (ASL) and English are the same language, but they are not. According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communications Disorders  <i>“ASL is a language completely separate and distinct from English. It contains all the fundamental features of language, with its own rules for pronunciation, word formation, and word order"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because sign languages are considered to be their own language, most deaf people are considered to be bilingual because they speak in one language (sign language) and read in other (English, Spanish, Arabic, etc.). It should also be noted that not all sign languages are the same. The sign languages are American Sign Language (ASL), Mexican Sign Language (LSM), British Sign Language (BSL), Spanish Sign Language (LSE), and <a href="List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">many more</a>.  

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_comprehension">In comprehension</h2></div>

<p>Transfer can also occur in <a href="Polyglot_(person)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyglot (person)">polyglot</a> individuals when comprehending verbal utterances or written language. For instance, <a href="German_language" title="German language">German</a> and <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a> both have <a href="Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clauses</a> with a <a href="Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>-noun-<a href="Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> (=NNV) order but which are interpreted differently in both languages:

</p><p>German example: <i>Das Mädchen, das die Frau küsst, ist blond</i>

</p><p>If <a href="Translation" title="Translation">translated</a> word for word with word order maintained, this German relative clause is equivalent to

</p><p>English example: <i>The girl that </i>(or <i>whom</i>)<i> the woman is kissing is blonde.</i>

</p><p>The German and the English examples differ in that in German the <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> role can be taken by <i>das Mädchen</i> (the girl) or <i>die Frau</i> (the woman) while in the English example only the second <a href="Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> (the woman) can be the subject. In short, because German singular feminine and neuter articles exhibit the same inflected form for the accusative as for the nominative case, the German example is <a href="Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">syntactically ambiguous</a> in that either <i>the girl</i> or <i>the woman</i> may be doing the kissing. In the English example, both word-order rules and the test of substituting a relative pronoun with different nominative and accusative case markings (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>whom</i>/<i>who</i>*) reveal that only <i>the woman</i> can be doing the kissing.

</p><p>The ambiguity of the German NNV relative clause structure becomes obvious in cases where the assignment of <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> and <a href="Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> role is disambiguated. This can be because of <a href="Case_marking" class="mw-redirect" title="Case marking">case marking</a> if one of the nouns is <a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatically male</a> as in <i>Der Mann, den die Frau küsst...</i> (The man that the woman is kissing...) vs. <i>Der Mann, der die Frau küsst</i> (The man that is kissing the woman...) because in German the male <a href="Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> marks the <a href="Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> <a href="Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>. The syntactic ambiguity of the German example also becomes obvious in the case of <a href="Polysemy" title="Polysemy">semantic disambiguation</a>. For instance in <i>Das Eis, das die Frau isst...</i> (The ice cream that the woman is eating...) and <i>Die Frau, die das Eis isst...</i> (The woman that is eating the ice cream...) only <i>die Frau</i> (the woman) is a plausible subject.

</p><p>Because in English relative clauses with a noun-noun-verb structure (as in the example above) the first noun can only be the <a href="Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>, <a href="First_language" title="First language">native speakers</a> of English who speak German as a <a href="Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> are likelier to interpret ambiguous German NNV relative clauses as object relative clauses (= object-subject-verb order) than German native speakers who prefer an interpretation in which the first noun phrase is the subject (subject-object-verb order).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because they have transferred their <a href="Parsing" title="Parsing">parsing</a> preference from their first language English to their second language German.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Broader_effects">Broader effects</h2></div>

<p>With sustained or intense contact between native and non-native speakers, the results of language transfer in the non-native speakers can extend to and affect the speech production of the native-speaking community. For example, in North America, speakers of English whose first language is Spanish or French may have a certain influence on native English speakers' use of language when the native speakers are in the minority. Locations where this phenomenon occurs frequently include <a href="Qu%C3%A9bec" class="mw-redirect" title="Québec">Québec</a>, <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and predominantly Spanish-speaking regions in the US. For details on the latter, see the map of the Hispanophone world and the <a href="List_of_U.S._communities_with_Hispanic_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Hispanic majority populations">list of U.S. communities with Hispanic majority populations</a>. The process of translation can also lead to the so-called hybrid text, which is the mixing of language either at the level of linguistic codes or at the level of cultural or historical references.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Calque" title="Calque">Calque</a></li>

<li><a href="Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a></li>

<li><a href="Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive rhetoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Interlanguage" title="Interlanguage">Interlanguage</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_contact" title="Language contact">Language contact</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_common_misconceptions_about_language_learning" title="List of common misconceptions about language learning">Language learning misconceptions</a></li>

<li><a href="Loanword" title="Loanword">Loanword</a></li>

<li><a href="Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">Macaronic language</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed language</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-competence" title="Multi-competence">Multi-competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Native-language_identification" title="Native-language identification">Native-language identification</a></li>

<li><a href="Phono-semantic_matching" title="Phono-semantic matching">Phono-semantic matching</a></li>

<li><a href="Ponglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponglish">Ponglish</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition">Second language acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a></li>

<li><a href="Translation" title="Translation">Translation</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Bransford-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bransford_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bransford , J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). <i><a href="How_People_Learn%3A_Brain%2C_Mind%2C_Experience%2C_and_School_(expanded_edition)" class="mw-redirect" title="How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (expanded edition)">How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school</a></i>. (Expanded ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csun.edu/~SB4310/How%20People%20Learn.pdf">PDF</a>). Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0309070368</bdi>.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAlfaifiSaleem2024" class="citation journal cs1">Alfaifi, Abdullah; Saleem, Mohammad (2024). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v6i4.6664">"Negative transfer and delay in proficiency development: L1 influenced syntax issues faced by Arab EFL learners"</a></span>. <i>Forum for Linguistic Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">42–</span>57. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30564%2Ffls.v6i4.6664">10.30564/fls.v6i4.6664</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2705-0602">2705-0602</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHan2004" class="citation book cs1">Han, Zhaohong (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fossilizationadu00hanz_262"><i>Fossilization in Adult Second Language Acquisition</i></a></span>. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fossilizationadu00hanz_262/page/n80">71</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1853596872</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFabiano-Smith_LeahGoldstein_Brian_A.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Fabiano-Smith Leah; Goldstein Brian A. (1 February 2010). "Phonological Acquisition in Bilingual Spanish–English Speaking Children". <i>Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research</i>. <b>53</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">160–</span>178. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1044%2F1092-4388%282009%2F07-0064%29">10.1044/1092-4388(2009/07-0064)</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20150407">20150407</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChungChenGeva2019" class="citation journal cs1">Chung, Sheila Cira; Chen, Xi; Geva, Esther (1 May 2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0911604417300532">"Deconstructing and reconstructing cross-language transfer in bilingual reading development: An interactive framework"</a></span>. <i>Journal of Neurolinguistics</i>. Cross-linguistic perspectives on second language reading. <b>50</b>: <span class="nowrap">149–</span>161. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jneuroling.2018.01.003">10.1016/j.jneuroling.2018.01.003</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0911-6044">0911-6044</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53199706">53199706</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDepartment_of_Education2022" class="citation web cs1">Department of Education, Office of English Language Acquisition (August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925010403/https://ncela.ed.gov/files/fast_facts/ELDemographics_20220805_508.pdf">"English Learners: Demographic Trends"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncela.ed.gov/files/fast_facts/ELDemographics_20220805_508.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFeinauerHall-KenyonDavison2013" class="citation journal cs1">Feinauer, Erika; Hall-Kenyon, Kendra M.; Davison, Kimberlee C. (1 September 2013). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2012.658142">"Cross-Language Transfer of Early Literacy Skills: An Examination of Young Learners in a Two-Way Bilingual Immersion Elementary School"</a></span>. <i>Reading Psychology</i>. <b>34</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">436–</span>460. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02702711.2012.658142">10.1080/02702711.2012.658142</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0270-2711">0270-2711</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144416837">144416837</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAbbasianHadianVaez-Dalili2020" class="citation journal cs1">Abbasian, Reza; Hadian, Bahram; Vaez-Dalili, Mehdi (1 December 2020). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0059-5">"Exploring the interplay between Iranian EFL learners' first language (L1) literacy resources and their performance on L2 receptive skills"</a></span>. <i>Current Psychology</i>. <b>39</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1900–</span>1909. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12144-018-0059-5">10.1007/s12144-018-0059-5</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-4733">1936-4733</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149920398">149920398</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBabayigit2014" class="citation journal cs1">Babayigit, Selma (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/17856/1/jrir1538_2012.pdf">"The role of oral language skills in reading and listening comprehension of text: a comparison of monolingual (L1) and bilingual (L2) speakers of English language"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Research in Reading</i>. <b>37</b> (S1): <span class="nowrap">S22 –</span> <span class="nowrap">S47</span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9817.2012.01538.x">10.1111/j.1467-9817.2012.01538.x</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKimPiper2019" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Young-Suk Grace; Piper, Benjamin (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED602694"><i>Cross-Language Transfer of Reading Skills: An Empirical Investigation of Bidirectionality and the Influence of Instructional Environments</i></a>. Vol. 32. pp. <span class="nowrap">839–</span>871.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChuangJoshiDixon2012" class="citation journal cs1">Chuang, Hui-Kai; Joshi, R.Malatesha; Dixon, L. Quentin (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1086296X11431157">"Cross-Language Transfer of Reading Ability: Evidence From Taiwanese Ninth-Grade Adolescents"</a>. <i>Journal of Literacy Research</i>. <b>44</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">97–</span>119. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1086296X11431157">10.1177/1086296X11431157</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144558088">144558088</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWangDuYuShen2022" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Yuanbo; Du, Menglin; Yu, Keke; Shen, Guangyin; Deng, Ting; Wang, Ruiming (1 September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actpsy.2022.103693">"Bi-directional cross-language activation in Chinese Sign Language (CSL)-Chinese bimodal bilinguals"</a>. <i>Acta Psychologica</i>. <b>229</b>: 103693. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actpsy.2022.103693">10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103693</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-6918">0001-6918</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35933798">35933798</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251358752">251358752</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/american-sign-language">"American Sign Language"</a>. <i>NIDCD</i>. 29 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNitschkeKiddSerratrice2010">Nitschke, Kidd & Serratrice 2010</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGambiervan_Doorslaer2011" class="citation book cs1">Gambier, Yves; van Doorslaer, Luc (2011). <i>Handbook of Translation Studies, Volume 2</i>. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 49. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789027203328</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFWhitley2002" class="citation cs2">Whitley, M. Stanley (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yyqU_tXek1EC"><i>Spanish/English Contrasts: A Course in Spanish Linguistics</i></a> (2nd ed.), Georgetown University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87840-381-3</bdi></cite></li></ul></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Second-language_acquisition372" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Second-language_acquisition372" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Outline of second-language acquisition">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_common_misconceptions_about_language_learning" title="List of common misconceptions about language learning">Common misconceptions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Second_language_attrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language attrition">Attrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-language_acquisition_classroom_research" title="Second-language acquisition classroom research">Classroom research</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-language_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-language education">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_language_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language phonology">Phonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_language_writing" title="Second language writing">Writing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">Multilingualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Heritage_language_learning" title="Heritage language learning">Heritage language</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-competence" title="Multi-competence">Multi-competence</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learner language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Contrastive_analysis" title="Contrastive analysis">Contrastive analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive rhetoric</a></li>

<li><a href="Error_(linguistics)" title="Error (linguistics)">Error (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Error_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Error analysis (linguistics)">Error analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Error_treatment_(linguistics)" title="Error treatment (linguistics)">Error treatment</a></li>

<li><a href="Interlanguage" title="Interlanguage">Interlanguage</a></li>

<li><a href="Silent_period" title="Silent period">Silent period</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistic factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li>

<li><a href="Word_lists_by_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Word lists by frequency">Word lists by frequency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Individual_variation_in_second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual variation in second language acquisition">Individual variation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Language-learning_aptitude" title="Language-learning aptitude">Language-learning aptitude</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_period_hypothesis" title="Critical period hypothesis">Critical period hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Motivation_in_second-language_learning" title="Motivation in second-language learning">Motivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Willingness_to_communicate" title="Willingness to communicate">Willingness to communicate</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_language_anxiety" title="Foreign language anxiety">Foreign language anxiety</a></li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_awareness" title="Metalinguistic awareness">Metalinguistic awareness</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Strategies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Language_learning_strategies" title="Language learning strategies">Language learning strategies</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_strategies_in_second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication strategies in second language acquisition">Communication strategies</a></li>

<li><a href="Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a></li>

<li><a href="Good_language_learner_studies" title="Good language learner studies">Good language learner studies</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theories_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Theories of second-language acquisition">SLA hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Competition_model" title="Competition model">Competition model</a></li>

<li><a href="Comprehensible_output" title="Comprehensible output">Comprehensible output</a></li>

<li><a href="Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_approach_to_second_language_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic approach to second language development">Dynamic Systems Theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_second-language_acquisition" title="Generative second-language acquisition">Generative second-language acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Input_hypothesis" title="Input hypothesis">Input hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Interaction_hypothesis" title="Interaction hypothesis">Interaction hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_hypothesis" title="Interface hypothesis">Interface hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_position" title="Interface position">Interface position</a></li>

<li><a href="Noticing_hypothesis" title="Noticing hypothesis">Noticing hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Processability_theory" title="Processability theory">Processability theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Order_of_acquisition" title="Order of acquisition">Order of acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Skill-based_theories_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Skill-based theories of second-language acquisition">Skill-based theories</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Second_language_acquisition_classroom_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition classroom research">In the classroom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Focus_on_form" title="Focus on form">Focus on form</a></li>

<li><a href="Input_enhancement" title="Input enhancement">Input enhancement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aptitude tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="CANAL-F" title="CANAL-F">CANAL-F</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Charles_Alderson" title="Charles Alderson">Alderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Arg%C3%BCelles" title="Alexander Argüelles">Argüelles</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellen_Bialystok" title="Ellen Bialystok">Bialystok</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Bissell_Carroll" title="John Bissell Carroll">Carroll</a></li>

<li><a href="Scott_Crossley" title="Scott Crossley">Crossley</a></li>

<li><a href="Kata_Csiz%C3%A9r" title="Kata Csizér">Csizér</a></li>

<li><a href="Alister_Cumming" title="Alister Cumming">Cumming</a></li>

<li><a href="H._Douglas_Brown" title="H. Douglas Brown">Brown</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Bygate" title="Martin Bygate">Bygate</a></li>

<li><a href="Pit_Corder" title="Pit Corder">Corder</a></li>

<li><a href="Zolt%C3%A1n_D%C3%B6rnyei" title="Zoltán Dörnyei">Dörnyei</a></li>

<li><a href="Nick_Ellis" title="Nick Ellis">Ellis</a></li>

<li><a href="Rod_Ellis" title="Rod Ellis">Ellis</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_M._Ervin-Tripp" title="Susan M. Ervin-Tripp">Ervin-Tripp</a></li>

<li><a href="Suzanne_Flynn" title="Suzanne Flynn">Flynn</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_van_Geert" title="Paul van Geert">van Geert</a></li>

<li><a href="David_W._Green_(psychologist)" title="David W. Green (psychologist)">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Grosjean" title="François Grosjean">Grosjean</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Guardado" title="Martin Guardado">Guardado</a></li>

<li><a href="Luke_Harding" title="Luke Harding">Harding</a></li>

<li><a href="Scott_Jarvis_(linguist)" title="Scott Jarvis (linguist)">Jarvis</a></li>

<li><a href="Keith_Johnson_(applied_linguist)" title="Keith Johnson (applied linguist)">Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Judit_Kormos" title="Judit Kormos">Kormos</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Krashen" title="Stephen Krashen">Krashen</a></li>

<li><a href="Judith_F._Kroll" title="Judith F. Kroll">Kroll</a></li>

<li><a href="Diane_Larsen-Freeman" title="Diane Larsen-Freeman">Larsen-Freeman</a></li>

<li><a href="Wander_Lowie" title="Wander Lowie">Lowie</a></li>

<li><a href="Alison_Mackey" title="Alison Mackey">Mackey</a></li>

<li><a href="Brian_MacWhinney" title="Brian MacWhinney">MacWhinney</a></li>

<li><a href="Rosa_Manch%C3%B3n" title="Rosa Manchón">Manchón</a></li>

<li><a href="Viorica_Marian" title="Viorica Marian">Marian</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Kei_Matsuda" title="Paul Kei Matsuda">Matsuda</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Matthews_(linguist)" title="Stephen Matthews (linguist)">Matthews</a></li>

<li><a href="Jurgen_M._Meisel" title="Jurgen M. Meisel">Meisel</a></li>

<li><a href="Carol_Myers-Scotton" title="Carol Myers-Scotton">Myers-Scotton</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Nation" title="Paul Nation">Nation</a></li>

<li><a href="Lourdes_Ortega" title="Lourdes Ortega">Ortega</a></li>

<li><a href="Charlene_Polio" title="Charlene Polio">Polio</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Pimsleur" title="Paul Pimsleur">Pimsleur</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilga_Rivers" title="Wilga Rivers">Rivers</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Schmidt_(linguist)" title="Richard Schmidt (linguist)">Schmidt</a></li>

<li><a href="Norbert_Schmitt" title="Norbert Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>

<li><a href="Carmen_Silva-Corvalan" title="Carmen Silva-Corvalan">Silva-Corvalan</a></li>

<li><a href="Dan_Slobin" title="Dan Slobin">Slobin</a></li>

<li><a href="Neomy_Storch" title="Neomy Storch">Storch</a></li>

<li><a href="Merrill_Swain" title="Merrill Swain">Swain</a></li>

<li><a href="Tracy_D._Terrell" title="Tracy D. Terrell">Terrell</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_T._Ullman" title="Michael T. Ullman">Ullman</a></li>

<li><a href="Bill_VanPatten" title="Bill VanPatten">VanPatten</a></li>

<li><a href="Marjolijn_Verspoor" title="Marjolijn Verspoor">Verspoor</a></li>

<li><a href="Lydia_White" title="Lydia White">White</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Association_for_the_Teaching_of_Academic_Writing" title="European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing">European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Second_Language_Association" title="European Second Language Association">EUROSLA</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computational tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coh-Metrix" title="Coh-Metrix">Coh-Metrix</a></li>

<li><a href="L2_Syntactic_Complexity_Analyzer" title="L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer">L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Applied_Linguistics_(journal)" title="Applied Linguistics (journal)">Applied Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Bilingualism%3A_Language_and_Cognition" title="Bilingualism: Language and Cognition">Bilingualism: Language and Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_Learning_(journal)" title="Language Learning (journal)">Language Learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_Testing" title="Language Testing">Language Testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_Second_Language_Writing" title="Journal of Second Language Writing">Journal of Second Language Writing</a></li>

<li><a href="System_(journal)" title="System (journal)">System</a></li>

<li><a href="TESOL_Journal" title="TESOL Journal">TESOL Journal</a></li>

<li><a href="TESOL_Quarterly" title="TESOL Quarterly">TESOL Quarterly</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Modern_Language_Journal" title="The Modern Language Journal">The Modern Language Journal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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